Urban-Rural Inequality in Learning Environments: A Review of Its Impact on Teaching-Learning Processes in Public Primary Schools, Kenya

Abstract

Education is universally recognized as a fundamental human right and a key driver of socio-economic development. However, disparities in educational access and quality persist across different regions across Kenya, with a significant divide often observed between urban and rural public primary schools. The disparity in learning environments has a direct impact on the teaching-learning process and eventual on student academic performance. Furthermore, these challenges often intersect with socio-cultural and economic disadvantages, compounding the marginalization of rural learners. The primary objective of this review is to synthesize existing literature to analyze the key differences in learning environments between urban and rural public primary schools in Kenya and to evaluate how these differences affect teaching practices and student learning outcomes. This review is informed by Ecological Systems Theory (EST), also known as human ecology, is an ecological/ system framework developed in 1979 by Urie Bronfenbrenner. This review adopts a systematic approach to synthesize findings from peer-reviewed journal articles, government reports, and academic theses focusing on educational inequality in Kenyan public primary schools. The search included databases such as ERIC, Scopus, Web of Science, PsycINFO, African Journals Online (AJOL), and Google Scholar, as well as university repositories, governmental bodies, international organizations published between 2010 and 2025. A thematic analysis was used to identify recurring patterns. This review reveals pronounced urban-rural disparities in Kenyan public primary schools across four key dimensions: (1) educational resources, where rural schools face severe shortages of textbooks (often outdated) and ICT infrastructure, exacerbated by a digital divide limiting e-learning access; (2) physical infrastructure, with rural schools and urban slums contending with overcrowded classrooms, inadequate sanitation (impacting girls’ attendance), and unreliable electricity; (3) teacher disparities, including uneven distribution (rural areas experience higher pupil-teacher ratios and less-trained staff) and limited professional development opportunities; and (4) learning outcomes, as rural and low-income students consistently underperform in literacy/numeracy assessments, a gap widened by COVID-19 disruptions. These inequalities intersect with socio-economic status and gender, further marginalizing girls and impoverished students. Despite policy efforts like Free Primary Education (FPE), systemic inequities persist, with urban schools benefiting from better-funded infrastructure and resources. The study concludes that geographical location remains a key determinant of educational inequality in Kenya, exacerbating gaps in learning opportunities. To mitigate these inequalities, it is recommended that the Kenyan government prioritize the allocation of resources to rural schools, focusing on improving infrastructure, attracting and retaining qualified teachers, and providing adequate learning materials.